PSY307-Odors
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SECTION 1
Although there are many explanations for aggressive behavior in how to reduce it, many have trouble understanding it. Most people have not realized that “odor” may be one of the many explanations for aggressive behavior. This article will give the reader a deeper understanding of how “odor” can play a major role in influencing aggressive behavior and provide solutions with operationalizations towards preventing or decreasing the acts of aggression.
Do bad smells make you aggressive? At first blush the answer seems “no”, but research has consistently demonstrated over the years that odor plays a strong role in produced aggressive responding. There are several ways in which odor can influence aggression. First, unpleasant odors can negatively affect us psychologically and physiologically by inducing nausea, vomiting, headache, shallow breathing, coughing, sleep disturbances, and loss of appetite (Schiffman, Miller, Suggs, & Graham, 1994). For example, people who lived very close to swine operations were highly likely to engage in more tension, depression, anger, confusion, and fatigue than the control group (who did not live close to the swine operations) (Schiffman, et. al., 1994). Second, the effects of environmental odor may influence negative affect leading to the increased motivation of wanting to escape the situation (Asmus & Bell, 1999). As a result, environmental odor lowered participants’ level of aggression (Asmus & Bell, 1999). For instance, the experimental subjects who were exposed to malodors (very unpleasant odor) such as powdered asafetida (cooking spice), and cigarette ashes attempted to escape the situation (Asmus & Bell, 1999). Odors, heat, noise, crowding, and similar phenomena are often considered to be environmental stressors, and are often labeled ambient stressors (Campbell, 1983). Ambient stressors are the different types of stress that people get from the environment (Campbell, 1983). Third, air pollution and unpleasant odors from industrial buildings can negatively affect and “annoy” many persons around that area (Steinheider & Winneke, 1993). As an example, the association between malodor with annoyance and negative feelings was adjusted by coping strategies, age, and perceived health (Steinheider, et al., 1993; Cavalini, 1994). Fourth, malodor affects our attitudes and cognitive performances (Rotton, 1983). For example, highly unpleasant odors can disrupt a person’s performance on hard tasks, but not simple tasks (Rotton, 1983). Also, if a person is exposed to unpleasant odors, they end up experiencing high levels of negative affect and behave aggressively; however, when the person experiences very high levels of negative affect, they become motivated to escape the situation than to behave aggressively (Rotton, 1983).
In relation to how negative factors affect cognitive performances, Berkowitz created the Cognitive Neoassociation Model arguing that negative affect is created by aversive stimuli (unpleasant odors, high temperature, etc.) which provokes aggressive reactions (Baron & Richardson, 1994). Aggressive reactions may occur depending on how the individual perceives the situation. Berkowitz (1989) says that the process of Cognitive Neoassociation Model starts from unpleasant experiences of malodor and negative feelings. These unpleasant experiences may induce fearful thoughts and associations leading towards the fight or flight mechanism (Berkowitz, 1989). According to the research conducted by James Rotton, Cheryl Asmus, and Paul Bell (1983; 1999), the fight and flight mechanism gives us a feeling of anxiousness to escape the situation, which can reduce our chances of engaging in aggressive behavior. For example, human subjects who were exposed to the unpleasant odors of rotten egg and skunk scent were experiencing negative feelings and a high motivation to escape the unpleasant situation (Asmus & Bell, 1999). The ones who attempted to escape the situation had their level of aggression reduced (Rotton, 1983). As for those who retained their anxious feelings without engaging in flight or fight mechanism, they may start to experience anxiety, depression, tension, and other negative affects (Baron & Richardson, 1994).
Several factors had played an influential role in demonstrating ‘how come’ and ‘why’ odor influences aggression. In fact, the five sources of empirical research articles utilized had developed many diverse factors to aid in the explanation of malodors influencing aggressive behavior. According to Schiffman, Miller, Suggs, and Graham (1994), there are six factors utilized to describe the potential causes for altered mood: (1) the discomfort of afferent quality of odor (2) the periodic occurrence of the stimulus (3) learned repulsions to odor, (4) the potential of the brain undergoing stimulation through immune responses by the ways of neural connection between brain and lymphoid tissue, (5) direct physical effects from molecules in the plume including nasal and respiratory irritation, (6) possible chemosensory disorders, (7) negative/unpleasant thoughts in association with odor. Schiffman et. al.’s (1994) negative factors of odors affect a person’s cognitive thinking. Also, it can affect the person’s health physically through heart rate and electroencephalographic patterns (Schiffman et. al., 1994). The electroencephalographic patterns measure the nervous system from the brain’s electrical activity by recording the electrical conductor in certain parts of the brain (Babylon, 2009). What are some of the examples that researchers used on “odor”? Some researchers have operationalized odor as (1) rotten egg, (2) skunk scent, (3) powdered asafetida (cooking spice), (4) cigarette ashes, (5) ethyl mercoptan, (6) decomposing feces, (7) urine, (8) spilled feed, (9) anaerobic microbial decomposition of the feces, and a (10) broad range of other toxic compounds (Asmus & Bell, 1999; Schiffman, et. al., 1994).
It is important to understand what factors are involved in order to have a clear understanding of the association between industrial odors and environmental stressors/aggression. Steinheider et al.’s (1993) empirical research on industrial odors leading to environmental stressors examines several factors. The factors involved were age, gender, attitudes toward industry, and perceived health (Steinheider & Winneke, 1993). These factors helped come up with the results as to why unpleasant odors from industrial buildings can negatively affect and “annoy” many persons around that area (Steinheider & Winneke, 1993). The factor of age helped researchers to find that older people are less annoyed than younger people (Steinheider & Winneke, 1993). Also, age influences the degree of annoyance, but not the relationship between odor exposure and odor annoyance (Steinheider & Winneke, 1993). According to the findings found from gender, females display higher degrees of annoyance than males (Steinheider & Winneke, 1993). In the results for “attitudes toward industry”, individuals with higher education, and those with greater internal locus of control showed more concern and awareness, while people who were economically dependent on a major pollution source were less likely to be bothered by general air pollution or industrial odors (Barker, 1976; Evans & Jacobs, 1982; Steinheider & Winneke, 1993). Perceived health was found to be associated with annoyance, because the extent to which the participant was satisfied with his or her health was often very low, therefore leading to annoyance (Steinheider, 1993).
The factors used in Cavalini’s article on the relationship between exposure concentrations and annoyance were very similar to Steinheider’s research article (Cavalini, 1994). The strongest factor utilized in Cavalini’s article was perceived health/health complaints (Cavalini, 1994). First of all, it is very unpleasant to live near a commercial swine operation or even a hazardous waste site. The ventilation air released from the swine operation has a very unpleasant odor (Schiffman, et. al., 1994; Steinheider & Winneke, 1993). Many nearby residents and the experimental group, whom were supposed to live near the swine operations for about four days, have made complaints about the harmful effects it has done to them both physiologically and psychologically (Schiffman, et. al., 1994; Steinheider & Winneke, 1993). Researchers pinpointed that the odor produced from the ventilated air comes from a mixture of fresh and decomposing feces, urine, and spilled feed (Schiffman, et. al., 1994; Steinheider & Winneke, 1993). The worst type of odors comes from the anaerobic microbial decomposition of the feces and a broad range of toxic compounds (Schiffman, et. al., 1994). These types of odors that nearby residents consume had been proven to be hazardous to their health and psychologically harmful (Sciffman, et. al., 1994; Steinheider & Winneke, 1993).
Rotton’s article utilized similar factors from the other articles, but there were a few other factors that made it significantly unique from the other articles. The unique factors that Rotton involved in his experiment were paintings, peers in photographs, and persons described by adjectives while breathing air that was either polluted or unpolluted by ethyl mercoptan (Rotton, 1983). The reason why Rotton chose to use ethyl mercoptan was because the polluted smell permeates around the room slowly, which gives some time for the experimental subject to leave the room (Rotton, 1983). Rotton found that the subjects were unable to perform well on complex tasks (Rotton, 1983). Also, the malodor that the participant had been exposed to affected him/her later on (Rotton, 1983). The participants ended up having lesser tolerance towards frustration when they were withheld from having a sense of control (Rotton, 1983).
As a result from all the measurements that were utilized in the experiment, malodor does influence aggression. If it were the case that it did not influence aggression, then it was because the randomly-assigned participant of the experiment had the motivation to escape the situation.
How do we prevent this type of aggression or negative affect from continuing? If odor is a cause of aggression, then the first step is to prevent the odor from occurring in the first place. Is that feasible? First, some researchers have suggested that regulations need to be established in all 50 states, because animal wastes contain high levels of unsettled organic compounds that can produce strong odors (Schiffman, et. al., 1994). Methods must be found to lower the concentrations of compounds responsible for the odors so that swine operations do not affect the emotional lives of residents who live nearby swine operations or industrial factories (Schiffman, et. al., 1994). This may involve legislation that sets standards for odor (Schiffman, et. al., 1994). In addition, technological solutions must be found to reduce the concentration of the offending compounds (Schiffman et. al., 1994).
SECTION 2
One of the many examples of malodor leading to aggressive behavior is swine operations. As mentioned in Section 1, the factors included are (1) the discomfort of afferent quality of odor (2) the periodic occurrence of the stimulus (3) learned repulsions to odor, (4) the potential of the brain undergoing stimulation through immune responses by the ways of neural connection between brain and lymphoid tissue, (5) direct physical effects from molecules in the plume including nasal and respiratory irritation, (6) possible chemosensory disorders, (7) negative/unpleasant thoughts in association with odor (Schiffman, et. al., 1994). These factors induce modification towards the different moods of nearby residents (Schiffman, et. al., 1994).
SECTION 3
According to the first factor of this example, the experimental subjects had rated the malodor from the swine operations at moderate to high odor intensities (Schiffman, et. al., 1994). The second factor caused a negative alteration in the moods of nearby residents (Schiffman, et. al., 1994). The nearby residents were very angered and tensed about the malodor not only coming from outside, but also circulating inside the house through opening windows and air conditioning systems (Schiffman, et. al., 1994). The malodor from the swine operations was also absorbed through resident’s clothing, curtains, and other materials in the house (Schiffman, et. al., 1994). This factor had been recently discovered to affect human subject’s performances more negatively than constant noise (Schiffman, et. al., 1994).
The third factor found that the immune system and the brain of the participants were working together to condition itself against malodor through immunoenhancement (Schiffman, et. al., 1994). Unfortunately, the immune system cannot last forever in defeating the body’s mechanisms against the toxic chemical deriving from malodor (Schiffman, et. al., 1994). Moreover, learned repulsions to malodor may play a major role in psychological and physical effects from odors (Schiffman, et. al., 1994).
The fourth factor for possible causes of altered mood may impact the participants’ well-being without the “learned repulsions to malodor” (Schiffman, et. al., 1994). Another way that malodor from swine operations may affect the person’s physical health is by direct anatomical connections between the olfactory system and the immune system (Schiffman, et. al., 1994). The olfactory system is a sensory system utilized for the ability to smell (Schiffman, et. al., 1994). Also, the olfactory system can distinguish a new odor from the background environmental odors and determine the concentration of the odor (Wikipedia, 2009). According to the immune system, the brain can directly alter any responses to it (Schiffman, et. al., 1994).
The fifth factor implicated that industrial air pollution plumes may have direct physiological effects on the body (Schiffman, et. al., 1994). A plume is a type of contaminated air deriving from one source of a particular area (Schiffman, et. al., 1994). Moreover, since malodor may have direct physical effect, it can cause nasal and respiratory irritation (Schiffman, et. al., 1994). It may sound that nasal irritation may just lead to some minor aversive stimuli, but in fact it elevates one’s feelings of anger and tension (Schiffman, et. al., 1994). What is responsible for nasal irritation influencing tension and anger is volatile organic compounds (VOC) (Shiffman, et.al., 1994). VOC is responsible for the odors being directly absorbed by the body by way of gas exchanges in the lungs (Schiffman, et. al., 1994). Furthermore, the experimental subjects who had absorbed the malodor through their lungs have experienced the smell of that odor for hours (Schiffman, et. al., 1994). The long timing of that smell was what elevated tension and anger in the participants of this experiment (Schiffman, et. al., 1994).
According to the sixth factor, possible chemosensory disorders can affect the way a person smells malodor for medical reasons other than swine odor (Schiffman, et. al., 1994). For instance, the drugs that participants are taking, or when they are undergoing a type of medical condition, may cause them to be more offended or displeased by the malodor (Schiffman, et. al., 1994). This abnormal smell functioning may induce the participant’s potential to become more tense, depressed, angry, vigorous, fatigued, or confused (Schiffman, et. al., 1994). The seventh factor influences aggression towards those who are not accustomed to living nearby the malodorous polluted swine operations (Schiffman, et. al., 1994). Also, individuals with a higher education, and those with greater internal locus of control showed more concern and awareness, while people who were economically dependent on a major pollution source were less likely to be bothered by general air pollution or industrial odors (Barker, 1976; Evans & Jacobs, 1982).
How do we prevent this type of aggression or negative affect from continuing? As previously mentioned, some prevention and intervention techniques include regulations, legislation, and technological solutions (Schiffman, et. al., 1994).
Section 4
If odor was a cause for the atrocities at Columbine High School on April 20, 1999, then we would need evidence that there were foul odors present at the original crime scene area, or at least when the crime occurred. None of the witnesses involved in the Columbine High School shooting reported anything about malodor or polluted air. However, after the tragic incident, some believe that guns, violent video games, and movies may provoke the youth to do what the two shooters did (Wikipedia, 2009).
The media misinterpreted the identity description of the two shooters (Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold) (Wikipedia, 2009). They were not Goth loners or part of a “trench coat mafia” group (Wikipedia, 2009). Also, teachers and other school staff disregarded the bullying behaviors of football jocks and other high school athletic players (Wikipedia, 2009). Students have stood up and reported that the athletic player would shout homophobic remarks at Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold (Wikipedia, 2009).
How do we prevent these types of incidents to continue? First, there should be new police tactics such as Immediate Action Rapid Deployment (Wikipedia, 2009). In this kind of police tactic, police officers cannot accommodate injured victims (Wikipedia, 2009). Their goal is to find the shooter/killer and prevent him from killing more innocent victims (Wikipedia, 2009). Another prevention tip is gun control, but that has been a controversial issue for a long while, and the parents of the innocent victims killed in the Columbine shootings are still fighting for gun control safety laws (Wikipedia, 2009).
References
Steinheider, B., & Winneke, G. (1993). Industrial odors as environmental stressors: Exposure-annoyance associations and their modification by coping, age, and perceived health. Journal of Environmental Psychology 13, 353-363.
Asmus, C. L., & Bell, P.A., (1999). Effects of environmental odor and coping style on negative affect, anger, arousal, and escape. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 29 (2), 245-260.
Schiffman, S. S., Miller E. A. S., Suggs M. S., & Graham B. G., (1994). The effect of environmental odors emanating from commercial swine operations on the mood of nearby residents. Brain Research Bulletin 37 (4), 369-375.
Cavalini, P. M., (1994). Industrial odorants: The relationship between modeled exposure connections and annoyance. Archives of Environmental Health 49 (5).
Rotton, J., (1983). Affective and cognitive consequences of malodorous pollution. Basic and Applied Social Psychology 4 (2), 171-191.
Baron, R. A., & Richardson, D. R., (1994). Human Aggression (Second Edition). New York: Plenum Press.
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