High Self-esteem: Secure v. Fragile
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The concept of self-esteem has traditionally been divided into the types “high” and “low,” with high self-esteem characterized by general feelings of self-liking and self-acceptance, and low self-esteem characterized by more neutral self-feelings (Kernis, 2003). Typically, individuals with high self-esteem have been said to lead happier and more psychologically healthy lives (Baumeister, Campbell, Krueger, & Vohs, 2003), however, researchers have recently begun to question the notion that high self-esteem is something individuals should seek to achieve (Wood, Danu, and Foddis, 2006). Noting that individuals with high self-esteem are also more likely to become narcissistic (Baumeister et al., 2003) and to engage in more risky behaviors such as unprotected sex (Hollar and Snizek, 1996), researchers have begun to distinguish between different types of self-esteem that can exist within the category of high self-esteem. Specifically, two types of self-esteem that fall under the umbrella of high self-esteem are secure high self-esteem and fragile high self-esteem.
Secure high self-esteem is characterized by self-esteem that is positive, both implicitly and explicitly (Kernis, 2003). Explicit self-esteem refers to global self-evaluations that one is conscious of, and therefore able to report, while implicit self-esteem exists outside of consciousness (Kernis, 2003). Thus, individuals are said to have secure high self-esteem when their self-reported self-evaluations (explicit self-esteem) match their implicit self-esteem, (Kernis, 2003). Kernis, Abend, Goldman, Shrira, Paradise, and Hampton found support for the idea that the combination of positive explicit and implicit self-esteems predicted high secure self esteem in their 2003 study involving a manipulation of implicit self-esteem. In this study, researchers used subliminal stimuli associated with the self that were either negative or positive to manipulate implicit self-esteem. Soon after exposure to the stimuli, participants (none of whom were Jewish) were asked to watch a video of a job interview with a woman who was Jewish (and therefore was supposedly a potentially threatening other) and rate whether or not she should be hired. Results revealed that participants in the high implicit self-esteem condition, who also reported high explicit self-esteem, gave the woman more favorable ratings. This finding indicates that those whose high implicit self-esteem matched their high explicit self-esteem were less threatened by the woman, and therefore more secure in their high self-esteem (Kernis et al., 2005).
In contrast to secure high self-esteem, fragile high self-esteem is characterized by narcissism, the dependence of high self esteem on desired outcomes, an unwillingness to admit the possession of some negative self-feelings, and the fluctuation of feelings of self-worth (Kernis, 2003). In the case of fragile high self-esteem, individuals’ positive explicit self-esteem does not match their implicit self-esteem, but rather masks the fact that their implicit self-esteem is not positive.
According to Bosson, Brown, Zeigler-Hill and Swann (2003), those with fragile high-self esteem are more likely than those with secure high self-esteem to engage in self-enhancement strategies after receiving a threat to their self-worth. Their study involved examining name-letter preference supported this assertion among high secure and high fragile self-esteem individuals. The authors hypothesized that individuals with negative implicit self-esteem would prefer no particular letters, while individuals with positive implicit self-esteem would prefer their own name-letters over other letters. Using this as the determining factor for implicit self-esteem type, the researchers found that groups with high explicit self-esteem but low implicit self-esteem were more likely to engage in activities to bolster self-worth (Bosson et al., 2003). In other words, high explicit, low implicit self-esteem (i.e., fragile) individuals needed to constantly reaffirm their self-worth.
In another study by Jordan, Spencer, Zanna, Hoshino-Browne, and Correll (2003), researchers examined the relationship between fragile high self-esteem and narcissism and found that individuals with high explicit self-esteem but low implicit self-esteem scored higher than their secure high self-esteemed counterparts on a scale of narcissism (Jordon et al., 2003).
The study of secure and fragile high self-esteem calls into question the precise meaning of high self-esteem. As Zeigler-Hill (2006) notes, having high self esteem has typically been viewed as beneficial to individuals, but this view is an oversimplification and the concept of high self esteem requires much further scrutiny.
References
Baumeister, R. F., Campbell, J. D., Krueger, J. I. & Vohs, K. D. (2003). Does high self-esteem cause better performance, interpersonal success, happiness, or healthier lifestyles. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 4, 1-44
Bosson, J. K., Brown, R. P., Zeigler-Hill, V., & Swann, W. B., Jr. (2003). Self-enhancement tendencies among people with high explicit self-esteem: The moderating role of implicit self-esteem. Self and Identity, 2(3), 169-187.
Hollar, D. S., & Snizek, W. E. (1996). The influences of knowledge of HIV/AIDS and self-esteem on the sexual practices of college students. Social Behavior and Personality, 24(1), 75-86.
Jordan, C. H., Spencer, S. J., Zanna, M. P., Hoshino-Browne, E., & Correll, J. (2003). Secure and defensive high self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(5), 969-978.
Kernis, M. H. (2003). Toward a conceptualization of optimal self-esteem. Psychological Inquiry, 14(1), 1-26.
Kernis, M. H., Abend, T. A., Goldman, B. M., Shrira, I., Paradise, A. N., & Hampton, C. (2005). Self-serving responses arising from discrepancies between explicit and implicit self-esteem. Self and Identity, 4(4), 311-330.
Wood, J. V., Anthony, D. B., & Foddis, W. F. (2006). Should people with low self-esteem strive for high self-esteem?. New York, NY, US: Psychology Press.
Zeigler-Hill, V. (2006). Discrepancies between implicit and explicit self-esteem: Implications for narcissism and self-esteem instability. Journal of Personality, 74(1), 119-143.
