300374832-Birth complications
From PsychWiki - A Collaborative Psychology Wiki
Violence is a multi-faceted issue that must be examined from many different angles. In order to develop a strategy for reducing violence, an in-depth look is needed into the explanations offered for its cause. Among the many factors contributing to violent behavior, much research has been developed around the role of birth complications that can potentially lead to violence. In 1956, Pasamanick was among the first researchers to make a connection between birth complications and behavioral disorders (Liu & Wuernecker, 2005). Since that study, several researchers have investigated the effects of birth complications on later on-set violent behavior. One common finding amongst all research is that birth complications alone are not a causal factor for violent behavior.
Section 1
When researching birth complications, the procedures vary by study. Different types of birth complications (also known as obstetric complications) include episiotomies, delivery using forceps, chronic fetal hypoxia, induction of labor, issues with the placenta, umbilical cord prolapse, (Arsenault, Tremblay, Boulerice & Saucier 2002), anoxia (Beaver & Wright, 2005) hypertension, preclampsia and low birth weight. Of the potential birth complications listed, the most prevalent amongst research studies is hypertension, preclampsia and anoxia, which have shown to have the most damaging effects on the central nervous system and development of brain tissue in the fetus.
In order to understand how violent behavior can be predicted through obstetric complications, we must look at each potential complication individually. Of particular concern is preclampsia, which is responsible for most maternal and perinatal deaths (Arsenault et. al., 2002). Issues caused by preclampsia are neuropsychological deficits that result in the development of behavioral problems (Arsenault et. al. 2002). Hypertension experienced by the mother is also attributed to the fetus developing low levels of pain sensitivity, which can lead to higher levels of physical aggression amongst children studied (Arsenault et. al. 2002). Researchers Beaver and Wright looked at the damage done by anoxia as the most compromising. The lack of oxygen leads to irreversible brain damage, particularly in the brain stem (Beaver & Wright, 2005), which can create deficiencies in self-regulation and create problems with self-control. Further research by Beaver & Wright has shown that damage to the brain is linked to disorders like ADHD and other “socially taxing traits.”
Examples of socially taxing traits can be found amongst people suffering from schizophrenia. Research done by Mary Cannon specifically looked at the role of birth complications in violence with specific attention to schizophrenic case studies. Individuals suffering with schizophrenia are more likely to have had more birth complications that cause neuro-developmental and intellectual impairments (Cannon et. al., 2002). The fact that schizophrenics are four to seven times more likely than non-affected individuals to commit violent acts, made this subgroup a prime case study (Cannon et. al, 2002). What research found is that the association between obstetric complications and later violent offending were only of borderline statistical significance (Cannon, et. al., 2002). However, when combined with adverse family situations and a difficult upbringing, the correlation and significance level rises considerably.
One of the most relevant reasons for understanding the relationship between birth complications and violent behavior is prevention and risk reduction. Because birth complications alone aren’t a causal fact of violence, we must look at options for reducing the potential risks that come with having birth complications in the first place. Researchers Raine, Brennan, Sarnoff and Mednick (1997), make a relevant connection between obstetrical issues and maternal rejection, that together (vs. independently) are strongly correlated with violent behavior.. Because of the consensus among researchers that environment plays a large role in thwarting or encouraging aggressive behavior, preventative measures can be taken.
One model proposed by Liu and Wuernecker 2004, is a three step model that would reduce the potential for developing antisocial behaviors which are considered to be the leading predictor for later violence (Arsenault et. al. 2002). The first step calls for educating pregnant women in the importance of proper nutrition and prenatal care to reduce the likelihood of developing complications during the birthing process. The second step is to identify the risk factors that can lead to complications and target those individuals most likely to be affected with education and prevention. The final step in Liu and Wuernecker’s model is the treatment of those who were affected by birth complications. This is done through environmental changes in the infants home life and care as to reduce the risk of violent behavior developing later in life. Liu and Wuernecker propose that when executing all three factors, violent behavior can be reduced effectively.
Because the correlation between birth complications alone leading towards violent behavior is weak, a strong emphasis is placed on the role of parents to reduce the likelihood of future violent behavior. Arsenault’s research shows that most children between the first and third year after birth learn to control physical aggression. This idea again shows that parental involvement is crucial in reducing maladaptive behavioral effects that can result from birth complications. While the Liu and Wuernecker method of preventing future violence has shown promising outcomes, it is important to recognize “that if such interventions are to be maximally successful, they should begin before birth, rather than during childhood and adolescence as is currently the case (Raine et. al 1997, p. 1270).”
Section 2
Violent acts and behaviors are an every day occurrence that happens for many reasons, though these reasons are difficult to predict, inferences can sometimes be made. For example, in the case of Zacarias Moussaoi, a conspirator in the September 11th attacks on the World Trade Center it was discovered during his trial that he suffers from schizophrenia as diagnosed by psychiatrist Michael First.
Section 3
Using the prevention strategy suggested by researchers Liu and Wuerker, perhaps a different outcome would have developed for individuals like Moussaoui. As with most researchers, Liu and Wuernecker agree that the most prevalent predictor of violence is family adversity. They propose that more parental education aimed at teaching parents how to cope with stress and how to properly care for a child reduce the risks that the child will develop anti-social behaviors. This latter method would include observation and providing the parents with tools to identify and correct behavior that indicates low levels of self-control and self-regulation. Arsenault, Tremblay, Boulerice and Saucier concur that “observational studies could also provide information about the support these families will need to for their sons learn alternatives to physical aggression (p. 505).”
Section 4
The mass murder scene that occurred on April 20th 1999 in Littleton, Colorado, known as the Columbine shootings, is one of the most violent attacks on a school campus. Much debate has been had as to what caused these young boys to kill twelve of their peers and themselves in cold blood. Several theories have been suggested, most of them addressing issues with depression and the killers being social outcasts. Little is known about their upbringing and birth records indicating the status of their mother’s birthing process are not available. It is difficult to speculate if birth complications had any role in their behavior. The only assumption that could be made is that these boys must have shown at the very least, minimal signs of anti-social behaviors, which as we have seen are a red flag for researchers that believe that conduct disorder become apparent early in life, therefore suggesting that the likelihood of origins must also occur rather early (Beaver & Wright p. 450). It is quite possible that the two shooters, Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold displayed anti-social behaviors such as low self-control and low self-regulation way before adolescence. If we eventually discover that either one of them did suffer from complications at birth, to make a correlation that potential birth complications led to their violent act, it is only fair to look at this information within the context of their family life and levels of adversity endured. Depositions from both sets of parents are sealed until 2027, so as of now the information on boys’ childhood and the events leading up to the massacre are ambiguous.
Conclusion
In researching the many explanations for violent behavior only one thing is clear. Violence is not caused by one sole factor; it is a combination of two or more factors merging together in a sometimes complex manner. To fully understand and appreciate the causes of violent behavior, we must employ a biopsychosocial perspective that looks at biological origins, psychological interactions and social factors that converge on some level to cause violent behavior.
References
Arsenault, L., Tremblay, R., Boulerice, B., & Saucier, J.F. 2002. Obstetrical complications and violent delinquency: Testing two developmental pathways. Child Development, 73, 496-508.
Beaver, K. & Wright, J.P., 2005. Evaluating the effects of birth complications on low self control in a sample of twins. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology. 450-471.
Beck, J., & Shaw, D., 2005. The influence of perinatal complications and environmental adversity on boy’s antisocial behavior. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46, 35-46.
Cannon, M., Huttunen, A.J.T., Arsenault, L., Jones, P. & Murray, R. 2002. Perinatal and Childhood risk factors for later criminality and violence in schizophrenia. British Journal pf Psychiatry 180, 496-501.
Liu, J., & Wuerker, A., 2005. Biosocial bases of aggressive and violent behavior—implications for nursing studies. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 42, 229-241.
Raine, A., Brennan, P., & Mednick, S. A. 1997. Interaction between birth complications and early maternal rejection in predisposing individuals to adult violence: Specificity to serious, early on-set violence. American Journal of Psychiatry, 49, 1265-1271.
◄ Back to How to explain violent behavior? page
