300098205-Self-control
From PsychWiki - A Collaborative Psychology Wiki
Section 1
The costs associated with violence are extensive. It is estimated that each year, approximately 676,000 people sustain serious injuries and that these injuries result in an economic cost of approximately 105 billion dollars (Alvarez & Bachman, 2008). Furthermore, these figures fail to capture the emotional costs experienced by victims and their families. Regardless of whom the direct victim of a violent act is; society as a whole pays the consequences. Thus, violence prevention is an important task and it is therefore imperative that the factors contributing to violent behavior be examined and understood.
According to Alvarez and Bachman (2008), “violence is connected by a web of actions and behaviors, ideas, perceptions, and justifications” (p. 2). As such, there can be no single explanation for violence. However, many theorists find that low self-control is one of the strongest correlates to delinquent behavior. Gottfredson and Hirschi, as cited by Alvarez and Bachman (2008), propose that “individual criminality is the result of low self-control” (p. 48). To fully appreciate Gottfredson and Hirschi’s point, we must develop a clear understanding of what constitutes self-control.
Brian Boutwell and Kevin Beaver (2008) describe self-control as intentional control over behavior, particularly in terms of reactions and impulses. Conversely, the inability to control or restrain one’s own behaviors, reactions, and impulses would be characteristic of low self-control or what some refer to as impulsivity. Larry Berkowitz (2008) adds to this notion by citing two forms of impulsivity; “behavioral impulsivity” and “cognitive impulsivity”. The first refers to a lack of behavioral control while the latter is characterized by inadequate planning. Berkowitz further states that “impulsive personalities, having weak self-control are apt to act on their inclinations” (p. 120). In addition, Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990) explain that people with low self-control have a here and now orientation and lack the skills to achieve long term goals. They further state that such individuals may turn to criminal activity that can provide immediate gratification of desires and some of this criminal behavior will be violent in nature.
There are several theories that attempt to explain the erosion and absence of self-control. For Gottfredson and Hirshi (1990), the key determinant of low self-control is ineffective child rearing, specifically failing to provide children with adequate discipline, supervision, and affection. Edem Avakame (1998) adds to this concept by explaining that consistent parental discipline is the best way to ensure that a child develops strong self-control. Thus, these theories suggest that self-control is determined by early childhood socialization. Alternatively, lack of self-control may also have a physiological or biochemical basis. Paul Rossby (2003) hypothesizes that low serotonin activity in the brain results in low impulse control. Additionally, researchers Beaver and Wright (2005) suggest that damage to the brain stem can also disrupt an individual’s ability to exercise self-control.
Yet, in spite of the possible causes of high impulsivity, Edmund Henden (2008) asserts that “self-control is a capacity that most people have to a larger or lesser degree” (p. 70). Why is it then, that people who are normally able to exert some level of self-control abandon it in times of stress and conflict? One possible explanation is that when an individual is confronted with a stressful situation, self-control may not be a strong enough deterrent. For example, David Luckenbill proposes that there are six developmental stages that precede a typical homicide. The two stages of particular significance are when the perpetrator perceives an interaction as offensive and when the perpetrator perceives violence as the only appropriate response. Specifically, if an individual feels offended and sees violence as the only alternative, the perpetrator may not be motivated to diffuse a potentially violent situation by exerting self-control (Alvarez & Bachman, 2008).
K. Herbert Hardwick and Augustine Brannigan (2008) offer a review of various methods used to measure self-control and impulsivity. Some of these measures include psychological and personality trait measures such as the Rorschach test and self-report surveys. In the case of young children, self-control is also measured by parent and teacher reports on a child’s behavioral patterns. These assessments are designed to identify personality traits such as egocentricity, emotional insensitivity, adventurousness, and the propensity to be non-verbal; all of which indicate a pre-disposition to impulsive behavior (Hardwick & Brannigan, 2008). However, although research consistently links low-self control with violent and aggressive behavior, it is important to recognize that not all people with low self-control will perform violent acts. In many cases low self-control presents itself non-violently, such as addiction to food, sex, drugs, and alcohol (Henden, 2008).
If low self-control is the cause of criminal behaviors, as Gottfredson and Hirschi postulate, then the tests and measures outlined by Hardwick and Brannigan, could help identify individuals at risk of committing violent acts. Moreover, once those individuals have been identified they then could participate in various therapies to reduce the risk factors. For example, if detected early enough, family centered therapy could promote a healthier, more consistent parenting style which would then presumably foster greater self-control in the children and in turn reduce violent activity. On the other hand, if impulsivity is resulting from low serotonin activity in the brain, administering drugs may also help to prevent violent behavior. In support of this model, Rossby (2003) notes that serotonin enhancing drugs, such as serotonin re-uptake inhibitors, are effective at treating impulsive aggression and violence. Although these treatments cannot prevent all violent behavior, therapeutic and pharmacological treatments are clearly important steps toward reducing violence.
Section 2
The news and media outlets commonly bombard viewers with accounts of violent behaviors. For example, KABC news in Los Angeles has recently been covering the shooting and killing of 21-year old Rodderick Burton II, also known as the rapper “Dolla”. According to KABC, the primary suspect in this killing is a 23-year old man from Georgia, Aubrey Berry. It is reported that Berry shot Burton with a 9 millimeter gun as Burton waited for his car at the Beverly Center Valet and that Berry then fled the scene in a rented Mercedes. With the help of witnesses, the Los Angeles Police Department was able to track Berry down at the Los Angeles International Airport. It has also been reported that five days before the shooting, the two men were involved in an altercation at an Atlanta strip club.
Section 3
From this information, little is known about Berry and the factors that motivated him to shoot and kill Burton. It is also unknown if Berry has a history of impulsivity, if he suffers from a chemical imbalance or a brain injury that would render him highly impulsive, or if there are other potential factors that led him to travel across the country to kill Burton. However, what is known is that five days before the shooting the two men were involved in a dispute at an Atlanta strip club.
Reviewing David Luckenbill’s developmental stages that lead to a homicide, one can only assume that Berry perceived his and Burton’s interaction as highly offensive and as a result, felt that violence was the only appropriate response. Based on this assumption, it is probable that this killing could have been prevented if Berry had perceived the situation differently and had been able to exercise greater self-control.
Berkowitz (2008) postulates “that a person can become more unwilling to attack than to perform the act as he or she comes very close to the time/situation when the act is to be carried out” (p. 121). Considering that five days elapsed between the men’s confrontation in Atlanta to the time of the shooting in Los Angeles, there was presumably ample time for Berry’s emotions to have de-escalated, for him to have considered the consequences of his planned actions, and for Berry to have exercised some level of self-control. On the other hand, it is possible that Berry’s interpretation of his and Burton’s interaction overrode his ability to fully process the implications of his actions. If so, failing to employ self-control under these circumstances is consistent with Berkowitz’s (2008) notion of “cognitive impulsivity” whereby impulsive behaviors are the result of inadequate information processing. For example, presuming Berry was aware that shooting Burton could result in his arrest and possible conviction, his failure to formulate a feasible get-away plan is evidence of inadequate cognitive functioning, which according to Berkowitz, may be related to impulsivity.
Section 4
Another violent incident that has attracted a lot of media attention is the Columbine High School massacre that occurred April 20, 1999. Although the Columbine massacre occurred several years ago, the passing of its 10 year anniversary has brought about a resurgence of interest in the incident. The now infamous Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold, then students at Columbine High School, had planned to kill everyone at the school using home-made explosives. When the bombs failed to detonate, the two boys, armed with semi-automatic weapons, shotguns, and rifles, opened fire on classmates and teachers, and then committed suicide. At least 21 people were injured, and 13 people were killed.
Over the years, there have been several theories explaining the boys’ motives for mass murder. Many of these alleged motives are now regarded as nothing more than myths (Toppo, 2009). In a recent USA Today article, it is noted that Harris and Klebold were not part of the Trenchcoat Mafia, they were not bullied into retaliation, they were not taking anti-depressant medication, and they didn't target jocks, African Americans, or Christians. Instead, it is now believed that Harris and Klebold were “a deeply disturbed, suicidal pair who, for over more than a year psyched each other up for an Oklahoma City-style terrorist bombing, an apolitical, over-the-top revenge fantasy against years of snubs, slights and cruelties, real and imagined” (Toppo, 2009, ¶ 7).
More so than the Berry-Burton case, it is hard to find a direct link between the Columbine massacre and impulse control. First, at this point there is no evidence that the boys suffered from inadequate parenting or biochemical deficiencies. Second, evidence from the boys’ journals indicates that the boys had planned their attack for over a year. In contrast to Gottfredson and Hirschi’s theory of criminality and impulsivity, whereby impulsivity is motivated by a desire for immediate gratification, Harris and Klebold were actually able to delay their gratification in favor of achieving a long-term goal. Although impulsivity has not been defined in terms of a specific time period between affect and action, the detailed planning and orchestration of the attack arguably reflects that the boys possessed a considerable amount of self-control.
Yet, perhaps of most significance was the boys’ perception regarding the wrongfulness of their actions. If violent offenses can be explained as a failure to restrain wrongful actions, as Berkowitz suggests, the perpetrators would have had to recognize that their actions were unjust. Once again, this does not appear to be the case with Harris and Klebold as evidence gathered from the boys’ journals reveal that they felt perfectly justified in perpetrating such an attack. Thus, the boys would not have been compelled to refrain from acts they perceived as justifiable.
All this is not to say that the boys did not suffer from low self-control, but that lack of self-control alone is not a sufficient explanation for the massacre. Nonetheless, the boys undoubtedly suffered from some significant psychological problems that may have been associated with a tendency for violent behavior. For example, psychologists now describe Harris as a “cold-blooded, predatory psychopath” and Klebold as “suicidally depressed” (Toppo, 2009). One might speculate that early detection of these problems and subsequent intervention may have helped prevent the Columbine massacre, although teachers and school psychologists say the boys were experts at deceiving adults (Toppo, 2009). Despite the many unknowns of the Columbine massacre, it is clear that violent behavior must continue to be researched if we are to develop a comprehensive understanding of its many causes. It is only then that we may prevent violent behavior and its consequences.
References
Alvarez, A. & Bachmann, R. (2008). Violence: the enduring problem. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
Avakame, E. F. (1998). Intergenerational transmission of violence and psychological aggression against wives. Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science, 30:3, 193- 202.
Beaver, K. & Wright, J.P., 2005. Evaluating the effects of birth complications on low self control in a sample of twins. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology. 450-471.
Berkowitz, L. (2008). On the consideration of automatic as well as controlled psychological processes in aggression. Aggressive Behavior, 34, 117-129.
Boutwell, B. & Beaver, K. M. (2008). A biological explanation of delinquency abstention. Criminal Behavior and Mental Health, 18, 59-74.
Gottfredson, M., & Hirshi, T. (1990). A general theory of crime. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press.
Hardwick, K. H. & Brannigan, A. (2008). Self-control, child effects, and informal social control: a direct test of the primacy of sociogenic factors. Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice, 50.1.1, 1-30.
Henden, E. (2008). What is self-control? Philosophical Psychology, 21:1, 69-90.
Rossby, P. (2003). Serotonin Deficit and Impulsive Violence: Does Your Case Fit? Cornerstone, Fall 2003, 1-4.
Toppo, G. (2009). 10 years later, the real story behind Columbine. USA Today. Retrieved May 18, 2009.
◄ Back to How to explain violent behavior? page
